. Arndt Johan, Kjell Gronhang, Richard E. Homans, R. Neil Maddox, and Frederick E. May (1981), "Toward a Replication Tradition in Consumer Behavior: Cross-Cultural Replication of Bennett and Mandell's Study of the Learning-Information Seeking Hypothesis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 8, ed. Culture, thus underlies the way consumers think and is understandably highly important in the decision-making process. Sheppard, Blair H., Jon Hartwick, and Paul R. Warshaw (1988), "The Theory of Reasoned Action: A Meta-Analysis of Past Research with Recommendations for Modifications and Future Research," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (December), 325-343. 7, ed. Hunt, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 151-159. To be certain that these are representative sources for the majority of cross-cultural consumer research, a manual and computerized search of the Social Science Citation Index from 1970-1990 was undertaken. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 826-832. Goldman, Arieh (1974), "Outreach of Consumers and the Modernization of Urban Food Retailing in Developing Countries," Journal of Marketing, 38 (October), 8-16. A cross-cultural study, therefore, examines data and explains results on the basis of cultural meaning, not national boundaries. Tse, David K., Russell W. Belk, and Nan Zhou (1989), "Becoming a Consumer Society: A Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Content Analysis of Print Ads from Hong Kong, the People's Republic of China, and Taiwan," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (March), 457-472. Hence, the future holds promise for building additional sources of cross-cultural knowledge rooted in the foundations already established. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 59-64. Dawson, Scott and Gary Bamossy (1990), "Isolating the Effect of Non-Economic Factors on the Development of a Consumer Culture: A Comparison of Materialism in the Netherlands and the United States," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Graham, John L., Dong Ki Kim, Chi-Yuan Lin, and Michael Robinson (1988), "Buyer-Seller Negotiations around the Pacific Rim: Differences in Fundamental Exchange Processes," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (June), 48-54. There have been numerous literature reviews of consumer behavior topics which have relevance to cross-cultural studies (cf., Folkes 1988; Helegson, Kluge, Mager and Taylor 1984; McAlister and Pessemier 1982; Sheppard, Hartwick and Warshaw 1988; Sirgy 1982). (1976), "Cultural Values Do Correlate With Consumer Behavior," Journal of Marketing Research, 13 (May), 121-127. The articles examined in this study attest to the fact that consumer researchers have expanded their research horizons to include cultures other than their own. Hawes, Douglass K., Sigmund Gronmo, and John Arndt (1978), "Shopping and Leisure Time: Some Preliminary Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Time-Budget Expenditures," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 14, eds. research by providing empi rical evidence of how consumer-behavior styles vary. Arndt Johan, Kjell Gronhang, Richard E. Homans, R. Neil Maddox, and Frederick E. May (1981), "Toward a Replication Tradition in Consumer Behavior: Cross-Cultural Replication of Bennett and Mandell's Study of the Learning-Information Seeking Hypothesis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 8, ed. An important issue to note here is that proposes a decision-making model that explains the co-adoption of three environmental behaviors such as sourcing electricity 17, eds. As Mick (1986) notes, meaning is not an individual enterprise, but rather "a social procedure for defining objects to achieve a practical effect" (p. 204). 12, eds. Swagler, Roger M. (1977), "Information Patterns in Indigenous African Markets: A Lesson in Consumer Performance," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Kirpalani, V.H. (1980), "Cultural Comparisons of Variety-Seeking Behavior," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. REVIEW METHOD Article Selection The all-encompassing nature of culture made the selection of research to be studied a crucial point in conducting a systematic literature review. In addition, the real challenge for consumer researchers is to look further for similarities among people of the world, as opposed to differences. Figure 2 illustrates the diversity of American subcultures examined by consumer behavior researchers. As there is a large proportion of international students studying business administration at Centria Univer-sity of Applied Sciences, the author has set the target group of this research to be international business U.S. Subcultural Research Trends Over time, not only has the number of subcultural studies increased, but the cultures being investigated have broadened in scope. 12, eds. 10, eds. We examined cross-cultural consumer behavior publications which have appeared in four major marketing journals and proceedings, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, and Advances in Consumer Research over a twenty-year period ranging from 1970-1990. AM Conference 2021 - Reframing Marketing Priorities 5-7 July 2021, Online 10, eds. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 186-192. Andreasen, Alan R. and Jean M. Manning, (1980), "Conducting Cross-National Consumer Policy Research," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Stayman, Douglas M. and Rohit Deshpande (1989), "Situational Ethnicity and Consumer Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (September), 361-371. Objective: 13.1: Understand the importance of formulating an appropriate multinational or global marketing strategy. Cultures Studied. in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. King, and L. Ring (1980), "Fashion Involvement: A Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Author: Hasan Kalyoncu largely learned. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 129-132. M. Wallendorf and P. Anderson, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 538-542. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. and Michael R. Solomon (1983), "The Relationship of Age and Gender Subcultures to the Consumption of Rational and Arational Experiences," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. T1 - The horizontal/vertical distinction in cross-cultural consumer research. Hence, language serves various functions in a cultural context. Weinberger, Marc G. and Harlan E. Spotts (1989), "A Situational View of Information Content in TV Advertising in the US and UK," Journal of Marketing, 53 (January), 89-94. From a preliminary overview, several topics such as materialism, consumption patterns between same sexed individuals, and family structure similarities offer commonalities between unique cultures that need further investigation. Cohen, Dorothy (1970), "Advertising and the Black Community," Journal of Marketing, 34 (October), 3-11. D) cross-cultural differences . Cohen, Dorothy (1970), "Advertising and the Black Community," Journal of Marketing, 34 (October), 3-11. Green, Robert T., Isabella, C. M. Cunningham, and William H. Cunningham (1974), "Cross-Cultural Consumer Profiles: An Exploratory Investigation," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. M. Wallendorf and P. Anderson, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 398-402. H.K. Rudmin, Floyd W. (1990), "German and Canadian Data on Motivations for Ownership: Was Pythagoras Right?" J.C.Olson, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 77-82. For example, the boxes containing "Cote 1989" have an asterisk and are therefore listed under countries studied in that article: Jordan and Thailand (see Figures 3 and 5). 4, July), 393-402. Cross-Cultural Research (CCR) publishes peer-reviewed articles that describe cross-cultural and comparative studies in all human sciences. model of national culture. FIGURE 8 OPERATIONALIZATION OF CULTURE: BELIEFS AND VALUES Furthermore, because values are internalized, the danger of ethnocentrism and overly broad generalizations distorting perceptions is quite probable. AU - Shavitt, Sharon. The descriptive research was necessary for the beginning rudimentary exploration; yet theoretical explanations of the phenomenon described must be included in the analysis. Reilly, Michael and Melanie Wallendorf (1984), "A Longitudinal Study of Mexican-American Assimilation," in Advances in Consumer Behavior, Vol. Wallendorf, Melanie and Michael D. Reilly (1983b), "Ethnic Migration, Assimilation and Consumption," Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (December), 292-302. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. (1983), "Cognitive Structure Across Consumer Ethnic Subcultures: A Comparative Analysis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 12, eds. Jaffe, Eugene D. and Israel D. Nebenzahl (1984), "Alternative Questionnaire Formats For Country Image Studies," Journal of Marketing Research, 21 (November), 463-471. in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Dilthey, Wilhelm (1972), "The Rise of Hermeneutics," trans. Clarke and Soutar (1982) cite a "greater orientation to convenience and labor-saving devices in North America" (p. 459). In his study of the Europeanizing of America, Kanter (1978) proposes that as a result of external conditions, Americans are becoming more fatalistic in their approach to life. Furthermore, because values are internalized, the danger of ethnocentrism and overly broad generalizations distorting perceptions is quite probable. Donohue, Thomas R., Timothy P. Meyer, and Lucy Henke (1978), "Black and While Children: Perceptions of TV Commercials," Journal of Marketing, 42 (October) 34-40. Consumption of places and experiences in a global/cross-cultural perspective. McCarty, John A. Kent Monroe, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 713-717. 14, eds. Kent Monroe, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 564-567. Alexander, Katherine and James McCullough (1980), "Cultural Differences in Preventative Health Care Choice: A Study of Participation in a Cervical Cancer Screening Program Among Mexican-Americans" in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 169-175. Consumer behavior researchers have done an admirable job in the initial step of studying a large and diverse number of countries; nonetheless, a cross-national study (noted as a letter "N" in Figures 3-5) does not always translate into a cross-cultural analysis (indicated by the letter "C" in the Figures). Michael J. Houston, Provo, UT:Association for Consumer Research, 403-410. Cross-cultural communication is a complicated but interesting subject involving consumer behavior, cultural factors and influences. 14, eds. Finally, while most of the cross-cultural research dealt with industrialized cultures, articles that explicitly examined primitive (meaning nonindustrialized cultures indigenous to the geographical region) cultures are marked with "P" and will be discussed in a separate section. 14, eds. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 71-74. R. Bagozzi and A. Tybout, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 191-196. First, it identifies areas needing additional research. AU - Lalwani, Ashok K. AU - Zhang, Jing Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior: A Review of Research Findings Glaser, Barney G. and Anselm Strauss (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Chicago, IL: Aldine. Thus, language represents one aspect of an emic (defined as the articulation of native understanding as they see them) view of the external cultural environment. 10, eds. 17, eds. Hence, language serves various functions in a cultural context. Thompson, Craig J., William B. Locander, and Howard B. Pollio (1989), "Putting Consumer Experience Back into Consumer Research: The Philosophy and Method of Existential-Phenomenology," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (September) 133-146. 16, ed. Globalization leads to a need to understand consumer behavior across national boundaries. T1 - The horizontal/vertical distinction in cross-cultural consumer research. The self-identification measure proposed by Hirschman avoids ethnocentric bias of the researcher as might be present in determining subpopulations on the basis of language alone. 7, ed. Box 870225, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0225, … Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 215-219. Tigert, D.J., C.W. Imperia, Giovanna, Thomas C. O'Guinn, and Elizabeth A. MacAdams (1985), "Family Decision Making Role Perceptions Among Mexican-Americans and Anglo Wives: A Cross Cultural Comparison," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Belk, Russell W., (1984), "Cultural and Historical Differences in Concepts of Self and Their Effects on Attitudes Toward Having and Giving," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Wilkes, Robert E. and Humberto Valencia, (1985), "A Note on Generic Purchaser Generalizations and Subcultural Variations," Journal of Marketing, 49 (Summer), 114-120. DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH While cross-cultural consumer behavior research has certainly progressed as a field throughout the twenty years of work examined in this review, there nonetheless are aspects of this research which warrant further attention if the field is to contribute to our understanding of consumer behavior. The "general" category (as noted in Arnould 1989) is used when the researcher examined artifacts in general as opposed to a specific class of goods such as durables. Both findings reiterate the rising interest and importance of cross-cultural consumer behavior research. Fate orientation, or fatalism, may be defined as "the belief that all events are predetermined by fate and therefore unalterable by man" (Gentry, Tansuhaj, Manzer, and John 1988). Engel, James F. (1976), "Psychographic Research in a Cross-Cultural Nonproduct Setting," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Kershaw Dividend Damascus, Panini Ancient Rome, Spicy Honey Sauce Recipe, Akatsuki Emoji Copy And Paste, Tatcha Ageless Eye Cream, Boya By-m1 Fiyat, " /> . Arndt Johan, Kjell Gronhang, Richard E. Homans, R. Neil Maddox, and Frederick E. May (1981), "Toward a Replication Tradition in Consumer Behavior: Cross-Cultural Replication of Bennett and Mandell's Study of the Learning-Information Seeking Hypothesis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 8, ed. Culture, thus underlies the way consumers think and is understandably highly important in the decision-making process. Sheppard, Blair H., Jon Hartwick, and Paul R. Warshaw (1988), "The Theory of Reasoned Action: A Meta-Analysis of Past Research with Recommendations for Modifications and Future Research," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (December), 325-343. 7, ed. Hunt, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 151-159. To be certain that these are representative sources for the majority of cross-cultural consumer research, a manual and computerized search of the Social Science Citation Index from 1970-1990 was undertaken. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 826-832. Goldman, Arieh (1974), "Outreach of Consumers and the Modernization of Urban Food Retailing in Developing Countries," Journal of Marketing, 38 (October), 8-16. A cross-cultural study, therefore, examines data and explains results on the basis of cultural meaning, not national boundaries. Tse, David K., Russell W. Belk, and Nan Zhou (1989), "Becoming a Consumer Society: A Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Content Analysis of Print Ads from Hong Kong, the People's Republic of China, and Taiwan," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (March), 457-472. Hence, the future holds promise for building additional sources of cross-cultural knowledge rooted in the foundations already established. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 59-64. Dawson, Scott and Gary Bamossy (1990), "Isolating the Effect of Non-Economic Factors on the Development of a Consumer Culture: A Comparison of Materialism in the Netherlands and the United States," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Graham, John L., Dong Ki Kim, Chi-Yuan Lin, and Michael Robinson (1988), "Buyer-Seller Negotiations around the Pacific Rim: Differences in Fundamental Exchange Processes," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (June), 48-54. There have been numerous literature reviews of consumer behavior topics which have relevance to cross-cultural studies (cf., Folkes 1988; Helegson, Kluge, Mager and Taylor 1984; McAlister and Pessemier 1982; Sheppard, Hartwick and Warshaw 1988; Sirgy 1982). (1976), "Cultural Values Do Correlate With Consumer Behavior," Journal of Marketing Research, 13 (May), 121-127. The articles examined in this study attest to the fact that consumer researchers have expanded their research horizons to include cultures other than their own. Hawes, Douglass K., Sigmund Gronmo, and John Arndt (1978), "Shopping and Leisure Time: Some Preliminary Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Time-Budget Expenditures," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 14, eds. research by providing empi rical evidence of how consumer-behavior styles vary. Arndt Johan, Kjell Gronhang, Richard E. Homans, R. Neil Maddox, and Frederick E. May (1981), "Toward a Replication Tradition in Consumer Behavior: Cross-Cultural Replication of Bennett and Mandell's Study of the Learning-Information Seeking Hypothesis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 8, ed. An important issue to note here is that proposes a decision-making model that explains the co-adoption of three environmental behaviors such as sourcing electricity 17, eds. As Mick (1986) notes, meaning is not an individual enterprise, but rather "a social procedure for defining objects to achieve a practical effect" (p. 204). 12, eds. Swagler, Roger M. (1977), "Information Patterns in Indigenous African Markets: A Lesson in Consumer Performance," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Kirpalani, V.H. (1980), "Cultural Comparisons of Variety-Seeking Behavior," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. REVIEW METHOD Article Selection The all-encompassing nature of culture made the selection of research to be studied a crucial point in conducting a systematic literature review. In addition, the real challenge for consumer researchers is to look further for similarities among people of the world, as opposed to differences. Figure 2 illustrates the diversity of American subcultures examined by consumer behavior researchers. As there is a large proportion of international students studying business administration at Centria Univer-sity of Applied Sciences, the author has set the target group of this research to be international business U.S. Subcultural Research Trends Over time, not only has the number of subcultural studies increased, but the cultures being investigated have broadened in scope. 12, eds. 10, eds. We examined cross-cultural consumer behavior publications which have appeared in four major marketing journals and proceedings, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, and Advances in Consumer Research over a twenty-year period ranging from 1970-1990. AM Conference 2021 - Reframing Marketing Priorities 5-7 July 2021, Online 10, eds. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 186-192. Andreasen, Alan R. and Jean M. Manning, (1980), "Conducting Cross-National Consumer Policy Research," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Stayman, Douglas M. and Rohit Deshpande (1989), "Situational Ethnicity and Consumer Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (September), 361-371. Objective: 13.1: Understand the importance of formulating an appropriate multinational or global marketing strategy. Cultures Studied. in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. King, and L. Ring (1980), "Fashion Involvement: A Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Author: Hasan Kalyoncu largely learned. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 129-132. M. Wallendorf and P. Anderson, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 538-542. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. and Michael R. Solomon (1983), "The Relationship of Age and Gender Subcultures to the Consumption of Rational and Arational Experiences," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. T1 - The horizontal/vertical distinction in cross-cultural consumer research. Hence, language serves various functions in a cultural context. Weinberger, Marc G. and Harlan E. Spotts (1989), "A Situational View of Information Content in TV Advertising in the US and UK," Journal of Marketing, 53 (January), 89-94. From a preliminary overview, several topics such as materialism, consumption patterns between same sexed individuals, and family structure similarities offer commonalities between unique cultures that need further investigation. Cohen, Dorothy (1970), "Advertising and the Black Community," Journal of Marketing, 34 (October), 3-11. D) cross-cultural differences . Cohen, Dorothy (1970), "Advertising and the Black Community," Journal of Marketing, 34 (October), 3-11. Green, Robert T., Isabella, C. M. Cunningham, and William H. Cunningham (1974), "Cross-Cultural Consumer Profiles: An Exploratory Investigation," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. M. Wallendorf and P. Anderson, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 398-402. H.K. Rudmin, Floyd W. (1990), "German and Canadian Data on Motivations for Ownership: Was Pythagoras Right?" J.C.Olson, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 77-82. For example, the boxes containing "Cote 1989" have an asterisk and are therefore listed under countries studied in that article: Jordan and Thailand (see Figures 3 and 5). 4, July), 393-402. Cross-Cultural Research (CCR) publishes peer-reviewed articles that describe cross-cultural and comparative studies in all human sciences. model of national culture. FIGURE 8 OPERATIONALIZATION OF CULTURE: BELIEFS AND VALUES Furthermore, because values are internalized, the danger of ethnocentrism and overly broad generalizations distorting perceptions is quite probable. AU - Shavitt, Sharon. The descriptive research was necessary for the beginning rudimentary exploration; yet theoretical explanations of the phenomenon described must be included in the analysis. Reilly, Michael and Melanie Wallendorf (1984), "A Longitudinal Study of Mexican-American Assimilation," in Advances in Consumer Behavior, Vol. Wallendorf, Melanie and Michael D. Reilly (1983b), "Ethnic Migration, Assimilation and Consumption," Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (December), 292-302. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. (1983), "Cognitive Structure Across Consumer Ethnic Subcultures: A Comparative Analysis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 12, eds. Jaffe, Eugene D. and Israel D. Nebenzahl (1984), "Alternative Questionnaire Formats For Country Image Studies," Journal of Marketing Research, 21 (November), 463-471. in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Dilthey, Wilhelm (1972), "The Rise of Hermeneutics," trans. Clarke and Soutar (1982) cite a "greater orientation to convenience and labor-saving devices in North America" (p. 459). In his study of the Europeanizing of America, Kanter (1978) proposes that as a result of external conditions, Americans are becoming more fatalistic in their approach to life. Furthermore, because values are internalized, the danger of ethnocentrism and overly broad generalizations distorting perceptions is quite probable. Donohue, Thomas R., Timothy P. Meyer, and Lucy Henke (1978), "Black and While Children: Perceptions of TV Commercials," Journal of Marketing, 42 (October) 34-40. Consumption of places and experiences in a global/cross-cultural perspective. McCarty, John A. Kent Monroe, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 713-717. 14, eds. Kent Monroe, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 564-567. Alexander, Katherine and James McCullough (1980), "Cultural Differences in Preventative Health Care Choice: A Study of Participation in a Cervical Cancer Screening Program Among Mexican-Americans" in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 169-175. Consumer behavior researchers have done an admirable job in the initial step of studying a large and diverse number of countries; nonetheless, a cross-national study (noted as a letter "N" in Figures 3-5) does not always translate into a cross-cultural analysis (indicated by the letter "C" in the Figures). Michael J. Houston, Provo, UT:Association for Consumer Research, 403-410. Cross-cultural communication is a complicated but interesting subject involving consumer behavior, cultural factors and influences. 14, eds. Finally, while most of the cross-cultural research dealt with industrialized cultures, articles that explicitly examined primitive (meaning nonindustrialized cultures indigenous to the geographical region) cultures are marked with "P" and will be discussed in a separate section. 14, eds. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 71-74. R. Bagozzi and A. Tybout, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 191-196. First, it identifies areas needing additional research. AU - Lalwani, Ashok K. AU - Zhang, Jing Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior: A Review of Research Findings Glaser, Barney G. and Anselm Strauss (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Chicago, IL: Aldine. Thus, language represents one aspect of an emic (defined as the articulation of native understanding as they see them) view of the external cultural environment. 10, eds. 17, eds. Hence, language serves various functions in a cultural context. Thompson, Craig J., William B. Locander, and Howard B. Pollio (1989), "Putting Consumer Experience Back into Consumer Research: The Philosophy and Method of Existential-Phenomenology," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (September) 133-146. 16, ed. Globalization leads to a need to understand consumer behavior across national boundaries. T1 - The horizontal/vertical distinction in cross-cultural consumer research. The self-identification measure proposed by Hirschman avoids ethnocentric bias of the researcher as might be present in determining subpopulations on the basis of language alone. 7, ed. Box 870225, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0225, … Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 215-219. Tigert, D.J., C.W. Imperia, Giovanna, Thomas C. O'Guinn, and Elizabeth A. MacAdams (1985), "Family Decision Making Role Perceptions Among Mexican-Americans and Anglo Wives: A Cross Cultural Comparison," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Belk, Russell W., (1984), "Cultural and Historical Differences in Concepts of Self and Their Effects on Attitudes Toward Having and Giving," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Wilkes, Robert E. and Humberto Valencia, (1985), "A Note on Generic Purchaser Generalizations and Subcultural Variations," Journal of Marketing, 49 (Summer), 114-120. DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH While cross-cultural consumer behavior research has certainly progressed as a field throughout the twenty years of work examined in this review, there nonetheless are aspects of this research which warrant further attention if the field is to contribute to our understanding of consumer behavior. The "general" category (as noted in Arnould 1989) is used when the researcher examined artifacts in general as opposed to a specific class of goods such as durables. Both findings reiterate the rising interest and importance of cross-cultural consumer behavior research. Fate orientation, or fatalism, may be defined as "the belief that all events are predetermined by fate and therefore unalterable by man" (Gentry, Tansuhaj, Manzer, and John 1988). Engel, James F. (1976), "Psychographic Research in a Cross-Cultural Nonproduct Setting," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Kershaw Dividend Damascus, Panini Ancient Rome, Spicy Honey Sauce Recipe, Akatsuki Emoji Copy And Paste, Tatcha Ageless Eye Cream, Boya By-m1 Fiyat, " />

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Only one study prior to 1975 (Pruden and Longman 1972) examined more than one subculture simultaneously. The thesis for this paper stated the cultural factors that evoked consumers’ buying decision. Although language may prove to be a poor segmentation variable, language preference is still the predominant determinant of acculturation in cross-cultural psychology literature and research suggests it may be instrumental in anticipating and encouraging diffusion of innovations among different cultures (Takada and Jain 1991). Although several studies tried to build up integrative perspectives on cross-cultural consumer researches (Douglas and Craig, 1997), no integrated model is yet found in literature. Hawkins, Del I., Don Roupe and Kenneth A. Coney (1981), "The Influence of Geographic Subcultures in the United States," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 8, ed. Not surprisingly, it appears, that language is a poor indicator of ethnicity. H.K. Sudman, Seymour (1985), "Efficient Screening Methods for the Sampling of Geographically Clustered Populations," Journal of Marketing Research, 22 (February), 20-29. Scott Ward and Peter Wright, Urbana, IL: Association for Consumer Research, 145-153. Literature examining fatalistic beliefs cuts across a diverse cross-section of world cultureCincluding Mexico, India, Jordan, and geographic regions of the U.S. and Brazil, for exampleCthat at first glance would have seemingly little in common. Tan, Chin Tiong and James McCullough (1985), "Relating Ethnic Attitudes and Consumption Values in an Asian Context," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Subsequently, an increased value and need for goods can also be taught. Other terms used in cross-cultural research such as socio-culture, assimilation, acculturation, and socialization need to be explicitly defined by the researcher to avoid the terminology confusion that now exists. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. (1983), "Cognitive Structure Across Consumer Ethnic Subcultures: A Comparative Analysis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. endobj Journal of Marketing, 45 (Spring), 98-109. As reflected in demographic and sociological changes within the U.S., the Hispanic subculture was frequently topic for research as shown in Figure 2. Kim, Chankon, Michael Laroche, and Annamma Joy (1990), "An Empirical Study of the Effects of Ethnicity on Consumption Patterns in a Bi-Cultural Environment," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Imperia, Giovanna, Thomas C. O'Guinn, and Elizabeth A. MacAdams (1985), "Family Decision Making Role Perceptions Among Mexican-Americans and Anglo Wives: A Cross Cultural Comparison," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Mary Jaone Schlinger, Chicago, IL: Association for Consumer Research, 141-155. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 59-64. AM Conference 2021 - Reframing Marketing Priorities 5-7 July 2021, Online 22, edited by Frank Kardes and Mita Sujan , 461-484. Many research studies specialising in marketing are currently focusing on cross-cultural variation in consumer behaviour (Beatty, Lynn, & Pamela 1991, p.154). 14, eds. We categorized the various operationalizations and grouped them as occurring (1) through language, (2) through material goods or artifacts, and (3) through beliefs or value systems. While this observation is merely in the speculative stages at this point of cross-cultural research, nonetheless commonalities between the sexes across cultures offer great potential as a basis for uncovering cross-cultural similarities. Dawson and Bamossy (1990) found the "increased saliency of ownership of material goods" to be related to Calvinist idealism expressed through organized religion; thus including many cultures outside the U.S.. 12, eds. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 629-632. The focus of most cross-cultural research has been on geographic comparisons of consumers in Western countries (e.g., North America, Europe) and in non-Western ones, usually Asian countries (e.g., China, Japan, Korea, India; Han and Shavitt, 1994, Kim and Markus, 1999). Services. The aim of this thesis is to research similarities and differences culture has on consumer behaviour. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 126-128. Each subculture is presented as a box. Mick, David Glen (1986), "Consumer Research and Semiotics: Exploring the Morphology of Signs, Symbols, and Significance," Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (September), 196-213. The degree of importance a culture places on material goods still is open to debate. The majority of research on the Asian countries was culturally oriented, specific cultural elements were examined more closely. Cross-cultural consumer research is increasingly important and essential for the current globalized marketplace. Corpus ID: 168492616. This article presents a framework that integrates and reinterprets current research in cross‐cultural consumer behavior. For instance, Douglas' (1976, 1979) descriptive study of family decision-making or women's life-styles in different countries without an attempt to explain results on the basis of cultural differences is an example of a cross-national analysis examining the differences between two countries. And yet, it is crucial in a cross-cultural analysis to remember that meanings assigned to goods by the researcher may or may not accurately represent the meanings understood by the host culture. Specifically, consumer research in demographics, psychographics, decision making, and the diffusion of innovation is examined from the perspective of extending these areas of study to the Indian market. Hence, the future holds promise for building additional sources of cross-cultural knowledge rooted in the foundations already established. Mayer, Robert N. (1987), "Consumer Use of Videotex Services in France," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Publication trends, cross-cultural similarities across seemingly diverse cultures, are discussed. Jolibert, Alain J.P. and Gary Baumgartner (1981), "Toward a Definition of the Consumerist Segment in France," Journal of Consumer Research, 8 (June), 114-117. A comparison between Germany and the U.S. College Nürtingen University Grade 1,0 Author Eva Sutter (Author) Year 2004 Pages 28 Catalog Number V35648 ISBN (eBook) 9783638354943 File size 1315 KB Language English Notes Pruden, Henry O. and Douglas S. Longman (1972), "Race, Alienation and Consumerism," Journal of Marketing, 36 (July), 58-63. AU - Shavitt, Sharon. Nagashima, Akira (1977), "A Comparative `Made in' Product Image Survey Among Japanese Businessmen," Journal of Marketing, 41 (July), 95-100. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research… In this study the impact of cultural factors on consumer buying behaviour is studied. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. (1981), "American Jewish Ethnicity: Its Relationship to Some Selected Aspects of Consumer Behavior," Journal of Marketing, 45 (Summer), 102-110. Penaloza, Lisa N. (1989), "Immigrant Consumer Acculturation," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. behavior has used the Hofstede dimensional. Arnould, Eric J. and Richard R. Wilk (1984), "Why Do the Natives Wear Adidas?" R. Bagozzi and A. Tybout, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 699-701. The descriptive research was necessary for the beginning rudimentary exploration; yet theoretical explanations of the phenomenon described must be included in the analysis. Henry, Walter A. Reflecting the social influences of the 1960s, most subcultural studies published between 1970-1975 dealt with the African-American subcultureCfrequently referred to as "negroes" (Bush, Gwinner, and Solomon 1974; Cohen 1970; Gensch, and Staelin 1972; Gould, Sigband, and Zoerner 1970; Pruden and Longman 1972; Sexton 1971a, 1971b, 1972). Thomas K. Srull, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 110-118. Since the research compared France with the U.S., these articles are listed in Figure 3 under France with an "N" signifying a cross-national study. 17, eds. in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Engel, James F. (1976), "Psychographic Research in a Cross-Cultural Nonproduct Setting," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, ed. J.C. Olson, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 255-257. Global Perspectives in Cross-Cultural and Cross-National Consumer Research deals with several important issues crucial for greater understanding of international and cross-cultural consumer behavior. Thomas Kinnear, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research 753-760. 7, ed. A twenty-year time frame, 1970 to 1990, was determined to be appropriate for a longitudinal analysis. Save time and never re-search. Figures 3-5 summarize published research by country in diverse geographic regions of the world. Hunt, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 151-159. R. Bagozzi and A. Tybout, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 702-704. Farris, Buford E. and Norval D. Glenn (1976), "Fatalism and Familism among Anglos and Mexican Americans in San Antonio," Sociology and Social Research, 60 (No. Tse, David K., John K. Wong, and Chin Tiong Tan (1988), "Towards Some Standardized Cross-Cultural Consumption Values," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 15, ed. Wilkie, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 364-371. Dilthey, Wilhelm (1972), "The Rise of Hermeneutics," trans. Sharon Shavitt, Ashok K. Lalwani, Jing Zhang, Carlos J. Torelli. eds. Richard J. Lutz. Figure 7 notes an array of cultural artifacts examined in a cross-cultural context. Douglas, Susan P. (1987), "Emerging Consumer Markets in Japan," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Find papers from over 170m papers in major STEM journals. An … Cross-cultural consumer research: Atwenty-year review. Only one study prior to 1975 (Pruden and Longman 1972) examined more than one subculture simultaneously. A second criticism of the cross-cultural consumer behavior field is the need to re-visit early topics of research: most notably consumer research on the African-American culture. 11, ed. Articles dealing with a subculture, ethnic group, or group of people with minority status were also included in the literature review. However, because of the close link between materialism and tangible goods, U.S. researchers in particular must be aware of potential ethnocentric bias when using material possessions as cultural measures. M. Wallendorf and P. Anderson, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 347-351. Much research on cross-cultural consumer. 13, ed. Richard Lutz, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 576-578. RESULTS Publication Trends Cross-cultural research has been steadily increasing since 1970, both in terms of the number of studies published (see Figure 1) and with respect to the countries explored (see Figures 3 - 5). �)u�eH�\Vm^]҅UD�ڼ��R@�����y�}w���*>. Arndt Johan, Kjell Gronhang, Richard E. Homans, R. Neil Maddox, and Frederick E. May (1981), "Toward a Replication Tradition in Consumer Behavior: Cross-Cultural Replication of Bennett and Mandell's Study of the Learning-Information Seeking Hypothesis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 8, ed. Culture, thus underlies the way consumers think and is understandably highly important in the decision-making process. Sheppard, Blair H., Jon Hartwick, and Paul R. Warshaw (1988), "The Theory of Reasoned Action: A Meta-Analysis of Past Research with Recommendations for Modifications and Future Research," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (December), 325-343. 7, ed. Hunt, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 151-159. To be certain that these are representative sources for the majority of cross-cultural consumer research, a manual and computerized search of the Social Science Citation Index from 1970-1990 was undertaken. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 826-832. Goldman, Arieh (1974), "Outreach of Consumers and the Modernization of Urban Food Retailing in Developing Countries," Journal of Marketing, 38 (October), 8-16. A cross-cultural study, therefore, examines data and explains results on the basis of cultural meaning, not national boundaries. Tse, David K., Russell W. Belk, and Nan Zhou (1989), "Becoming a Consumer Society: A Longitudinal and Cross-Cultural Content Analysis of Print Ads from Hong Kong, the People's Republic of China, and Taiwan," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (March), 457-472. Hence, the future holds promise for building additional sources of cross-cultural knowledge rooted in the foundations already established. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 59-64. Dawson, Scott and Gary Bamossy (1990), "Isolating the Effect of Non-Economic Factors on the Development of a Consumer Culture: A Comparison of Materialism in the Netherlands and the United States," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Graham, John L., Dong Ki Kim, Chi-Yuan Lin, and Michael Robinson (1988), "Buyer-Seller Negotiations around the Pacific Rim: Differences in Fundamental Exchange Processes," Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (June), 48-54. There have been numerous literature reviews of consumer behavior topics which have relevance to cross-cultural studies (cf., Folkes 1988; Helegson, Kluge, Mager and Taylor 1984; McAlister and Pessemier 1982; Sheppard, Hartwick and Warshaw 1988; Sirgy 1982). (1976), "Cultural Values Do Correlate With Consumer Behavior," Journal of Marketing Research, 13 (May), 121-127. The articles examined in this study attest to the fact that consumer researchers have expanded their research horizons to include cultures other than their own. Hawes, Douglass K., Sigmund Gronmo, and John Arndt (1978), "Shopping and Leisure Time: Some Preliminary Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Time-Budget Expenditures," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 14, eds. research by providing empi rical evidence of how consumer-behavior styles vary. Arndt Johan, Kjell Gronhang, Richard E. Homans, R. Neil Maddox, and Frederick E. May (1981), "Toward a Replication Tradition in Consumer Behavior: Cross-Cultural Replication of Bennett and Mandell's Study of the Learning-Information Seeking Hypothesis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol 8, ed. An important issue to note here is that proposes a decision-making model that explains the co-adoption of three environmental behaviors such as sourcing electricity 17, eds. As Mick (1986) notes, meaning is not an individual enterprise, but rather "a social procedure for defining objects to achieve a practical effect" (p. 204). 12, eds. Swagler, Roger M. (1977), "Information Patterns in Indigenous African Markets: A Lesson in Consumer Performance," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Kirpalani, V.H. (1980), "Cultural Comparisons of Variety-Seeking Behavior," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. REVIEW METHOD Article Selection The all-encompassing nature of culture made the selection of research to be studied a crucial point in conducting a systematic literature review. In addition, the real challenge for consumer researchers is to look further for similarities among people of the world, as opposed to differences. Figure 2 illustrates the diversity of American subcultures examined by consumer behavior researchers. As there is a large proportion of international students studying business administration at Centria Univer-sity of Applied Sciences, the author has set the target group of this research to be international business U.S. Subcultural Research Trends Over time, not only has the number of subcultural studies increased, but the cultures being investigated have broadened in scope. 12, eds. 10, eds. We examined cross-cultural consumer behavior publications which have appeared in four major marketing journals and proceedings, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, and Advances in Consumer Research over a twenty-year period ranging from 1970-1990. AM Conference 2021 - Reframing Marketing Priorities 5-7 July 2021, Online 10, eds. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 186-192. Andreasen, Alan R. and Jean M. Manning, (1980), "Conducting Cross-National Consumer Policy Research," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Stayman, Douglas M. and Rohit Deshpande (1989), "Situational Ethnicity and Consumer Behavior," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (September), 361-371. Objective: 13.1: Understand the importance of formulating an appropriate multinational or global marketing strategy. Cultures Studied. in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. King, and L. Ring (1980), "Fashion Involvement: A Cross-Cultural Comparative Analysis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Author: Hasan Kalyoncu largely learned. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 129-132. M. Wallendorf and P. Anderson, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 538-542. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. and Michael R. Solomon (1983), "The Relationship of Age and Gender Subcultures to the Consumption of Rational and Arational Experiences," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. T1 - The horizontal/vertical distinction in cross-cultural consumer research. Hence, language serves various functions in a cultural context. Weinberger, Marc G. and Harlan E. Spotts (1989), "A Situational View of Information Content in TV Advertising in the US and UK," Journal of Marketing, 53 (January), 89-94. From a preliminary overview, several topics such as materialism, consumption patterns between same sexed individuals, and family structure similarities offer commonalities between unique cultures that need further investigation. Cohen, Dorothy (1970), "Advertising and the Black Community," Journal of Marketing, 34 (October), 3-11. D) cross-cultural differences . Cohen, Dorothy (1970), "Advertising and the Black Community," Journal of Marketing, 34 (October), 3-11. Green, Robert T., Isabella, C. M. Cunningham, and William H. Cunningham (1974), "Cross-Cultural Consumer Profiles: An Exploratory Investigation," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. M. Wallendorf and P. Anderson, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 398-402. H.K. Rudmin, Floyd W. (1990), "German and Canadian Data on Motivations for Ownership: Was Pythagoras Right?" J.C.Olson, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 77-82. For example, the boxes containing "Cote 1989" have an asterisk and are therefore listed under countries studied in that article: Jordan and Thailand (see Figures 3 and 5). 4, July), 393-402. Cross-Cultural Research (CCR) publishes peer-reviewed articles that describe cross-cultural and comparative studies in all human sciences. model of national culture. FIGURE 8 OPERATIONALIZATION OF CULTURE: BELIEFS AND VALUES Furthermore, because values are internalized, the danger of ethnocentrism and overly broad generalizations distorting perceptions is quite probable. AU - Shavitt, Sharon. The descriptive research was necessary for the beginning rudimentary exploration; yet theoretical explanations of the phenomenon described must be included in the analysis. Reilly, Michael and Melanie Wallendorf (1984), "A Longitudinal Study of Mexican-American Assimilation," in Advances in Consumer Behavior, Vol. Wallendorf, Melanie and Michael D. Reilly (1983b), "Ethnic Migration, Assimilation and Consumption," Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (December), 292-302. Hirschman, Elizabeth C. (1983), "Cognitive Structure Across Consumer Ethnic Subcultures: A Comparative Analysis," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 12, eds. Jaffe, Eugene D. and Israel D. Nebenzahl (1984), "Alternative Questionnaire Formats For Country Image Studies," Journal of Marketing Research, 21 (November), 463-471. in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Dilthey, Wilhelm (1972), "The Rise of Hermeneutics," trans. Clarke and Soutar (1982) cite a "greater orientation to convenience and labor-saving devices in North America" (p. 459). In his study of the Europeanizing of America, Kanter (1978) proposes that as a result of external conditions, Americans are becoming more fatalistic in their approach to life. Furthermore, because values are internalized, the danger of ethnocentrism and overly broad generalizations distorting perceptions is quite probable. Donohue, Thomas R., Timothy P. Meyer, and Lucy Henke (1978), "Black and While Children: Perceptions of TV Commercials," Journal of Marketing, 42 (October) 34-40. Consumption of places and experiences in a global/cross-cultural perspective. McCarty, John A. Kent Monroe, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 713-717. 14, eds. Kent Monroe, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 564-567. Alexander, Katherine and James McCullough (1980), "Cultural Differences in Preventative Health Care Choice: A Study of Participation in a Cervical Cancer Screening Program Among Mexican-Americans" in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Marvin Goldberg, Gerald Gorn and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 169-175. Consumer behavior researchers have done an admirable job in the initial step of studying a large and diverse number of countries; nonetheless, a cross-national study (noted as a letter "N" in Figures 3-5) does not always translate into a cross-cultural analysis (indicated by the letter "C" in the Figures). Michael J. Houston, Provo, UT:Association for Consumer Research, 403-410. Cross-cultural communication is a complicated but interesting subject involving consumer behavior, cultural factors and influences. 14, eds. Finally, while most of the cross-cultural research dealt with industrialized cultures, articles that explicitly examined primitive (meaning nonindustrialized cultures indigenous to the geographical region) cultures are marked with "P" and will be discussed in a separate section. 14, eds. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 71-74. R. Bagozzi and A. Tybout, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 191-196. First, it identifies areas needing additional research. AU - Lalwani, Ashok K. AU - Zhang, Jing Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior: A Review of Research Findings Glaser, Barney G. and Anselm Strauss (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Chicago, IL: Aldine. Thus, language represents one aspect of an emic (defined as the articulation of native understanding as they see them) view of the external cultural environment. 10, eds. 17, eds. Hence, language serves various functions in a cultural context. Thompson, Craig J., William B. Locander, and Howard B. Pollio (1989), "Putting Consumer Experience Back into Consumer Research: The Philosophy and Method of Existential-Phenomenology," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (September) 133-146. 16, ed. Globalization leads to a need to understand consumer behavior across national boundaries. T1 - The horizontal/vertical distinction in cross-cultural consumer research. The self-identification measure proposed by Hirschman avoids ethnocentric bias of the researcher as might be present in determining subpopulations on the basis of language alone. 7, ed. Box 870225, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0225, … Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook, Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 215-219. Tigert, D.J., C.W. Imperia, Giovanna, Thomas C. O'Guinn, and Elizabeth A. MacAdams (1985), "Family Decision Making Role Perceptions Among Mexican-Americans and Anglo Wives: A Cross Cultural Comparison," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Belk, Russell W., (1984), "Cultural and Historical Differences in Concepts of Self and Their Effects on Attitudes Toward Having and Giving," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. Wilkes, Robert E. and Humberto Valencia, (1985), "A Note on Generic Purchaser Generalizations and Subcultural Variations," Journal of Marketing, 49 (Summer), 114-120. DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH While cross-cultural consumer behavior research has certainly progressed as a field throughout the twenty years of work examined in this review, there nonetheless are aspects of this research which warrant further attention if the field is to contribute to our understanding of consumer behavior. The "general" category (as noted in Arnould 1989) is used when the researcher examined artifacts in general as opposed to a specific class of goods such as durables. Both findings reiterate the rising interest and importance of cross-cultural consumer behavior research. Fate orientation, or fatalism, may be defined as "the belief that all events are predetermined by fate and therefore unalterable by man" (Gentry, Tansuhaj, Manzer, and John 1988). Engel, James F. (1976), "Psychographic Research in a Cross-Cultural Nonproduct Setting," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol.

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